Diagnosis Resources

It is widely reported that one in two people in the UK will be diagnosed with cancer in their lifetime, with a person being diagnosed every 90 seconds (Macmillan Cancer Support, 2025). This very sobering statistic is made even more real by the connectivity and interdependence we have with people across our working and social lives. Efforts to discover new cures and treatments for cancer continue at pace, as does genetic research to understand how certain cancers develop, why certain people may be more affected and may respond to treatment in different ways.

Diagnosing and managing lower urinary tract infections (UTIs) in women aged 65 years and over is important to ensure their health and wellbeing. This article explores how to diagnose lower UTI, considering alternative diagnoses especially in older adults, as their symptoms may mimic UTI but may indicate other underlying conditions. It also looks at how to manage and treat uncomplicated lower UTI and provides guidance on recurrent UTI, usually defined as three or more episodes in a year.

Hyperthyroidism is a condition with several signs and symptoms which can occur with variable degrees of severity. Less common than hypothyroidism (covered in an earlier article; Perry, 2025), the problem occurs in countries around the world and is more often seen in older adults. Due to the fact that some of the symptoms can mimic other conditions, diagnosis can be challenging. This article gives an overview of the disease, looking at presentation, diagnosis, treatment and complications with the aim of improving understanding of this difficult disease among nurses and nonmedical prescribers.

Polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR) is a common inflammatory rheumatic disease in older people. Three-quarters of people with PMR are women and individuals living in the south of England are at highest risk (Partington et al, 2018). Research indicates that around 17,244 people in England are diagnosed with PMR annually (Saha et al, 2023). This article aims to support general practice nurses (GPNs) in early recognition and diagnosis of PMR, effective treatment and prevention of complications such as blindness. It also focuses on preserving patient mobility and independence and minimising the risks associated with long-term corticosteroid treatment.

Hypothyroidism is a common endocrine condition characterised by an underactive thyroid gland, resulting in a deficiency of thyroid hormones. It presents with variable symptoms, which can range from mild such as fatigue and dry skin, to more severe, such as shortness of breath. As it shares fairly wide ranging symptoms with many other common conditions, such as depression, menopause, etc, it can sometimes be missed. If left untreated, the outcome can be fatal. The condition is often diagnosed and treated in the primary care setting, and this article gives nurses and nonmedical prescribers an overview of the disease with the aim of helping them recognise and treat this condition, so as to improve outcomes and quality of life.

Anaemia is a common condition occurring worldwide. There are several different forms of anaemia, with iron deficiency anaemia (IDA) and anaemia of chronic disease (ACD) being two of the most prevalent types. Both have similar symptoms but are associated with different causes. Differentiating between the two types and confirming the diagnosis can be a difficult process. This article gives an insight into these two diseases, providing nurses and nonmedical prescribers with an understanding of assessment, diagnosis and treatment.

Urinary tract infection (UTI) is a term that describes an infection anywhere within the urinary system where the commonest cause is Escherichia coli, which accounts for 80% of infections and is usually found in the urinary tract (Vasudevan, 2014). Women are more susceptible to UTIs than men as their urethra is shorter, which means that infection can easily ascend the tract (Vasudevan, 2014; John et al, 2016). However, as men age, the risk becomes equal to women (Harrington and Hooton, 2000; Rowe et al, 2014) and accurate diagnosis and management of UTIs in men using guidelines is poor (Isberg et al, 2024). This article considers the risk factors for UTI in men, how they present, and how UTI can be managed in primary care.

Childhood constipation is a common and often distressing condition affecting both the child and their family. It is frequently encountered in primary care settings and, if not managed effectively, can lead to significant physical and psychological morbidity. Effective management hinges on a comprehensive approach that encompasses assessment, diagnosis, treatment, and understanding the psychological impacts. This article covers the critical aspects of assessing and diagnosing childhood constipation, including abdominal examination, recognising red flags and differential diagnoses, further investigations, and the psychological implications of the condition. It also delves into the causal reasons for childhood constipation, its effects on the child’s well-being, parental frustrations due to poor management, and treatment options available.

Due to its diverse manifestations, Lyme disease (caused by the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi) can present as a diagnostic challenge. This article will help practitioners to recognise Lyme disease in all its formats, ensure that historytaking and assessment are appropriate, and to consider other differentials while considering Lyme disease as the most likely diagnosis. Additionally, clinicians need to be able to manage the presentation appropriately using up-to-date guidelines. There will also be some discussion about the sequelae of Lyme disease — treated or untreated — and the impact of global warming on arthropod disease generally, including Lyme disease.

An awareness of the impact of climate change has led to policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHGEs). The National Health Service (NHS) is the UK public sector’s largest emitter of greenhouse gases, with a target to deliver a net zero NHS by 2050 (NHS, 2020). Pressurised metered dose inhalers (pMDIs), which use hydrofluoroalkanes (HFA) as the propellant, have been targeted as a perceived easy option to reduce the NHS carbon footprint of HFA, as alternative inhaler devices in the form of dry powder inhalers (DPIs) and soft mist inhalers (SMIs) which contain no propellant are readily available. Balancing the environmental impact while ensuring that the best option of inhaler device is provided for individual patients can lead to conflict and confusion for healthcare professionals while waiting for manufacturers to provide pMDI with propellants that are more environmentally friendly. This article discusses sustainability, from manufacture to disposal.